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By Matthew B. Harrison
TALKERS, VP/Associate Publisher
Harrison Media Law, Senior Partner
Goodphone Communications, Executive Producer

As media creators in radio and podcasting explore ways to legally incorporate external audio, the fair use factor of “purpose and character” is crucial. This factor assesses whether the use is “transformative”—adding new expression or meaning—or merely reproduces the original’s essence, potentially infringing on copyright.

Examples from popular platforms provide guidance. Podcaster Joe Rogan, for instance, often uses clips to build commentary and analysis, which could support a fair use defense due to its transformative nature (though others may argue the additions don’t significantly alter the original). Defining “transformative” is challenging, especially when the original creator disagrees on whether substantial new meaning has been added.

Transformative use in podcasts.  In podcasting, many creators use news clips or sound bites to provide commentary or critique, adding analysis or humor that can help support a fair use claim. For example, “The Joe Rogan Experience“ has used various clips and video snippets with added commentary. While Rogan’s show hasn’t faced significant legal challenges for these uses, adding commentary could bolster a fair use defense.

Hypothetical: satire on a radio show. Consider a radio show that incorporates political speech snippets for satire. If the use is genuinely transformative, adding new expression or meaning, it may meet fair use standards. However, the line is thin, especially if the clip isn’t significantly altered. Precedents like Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. inform how courts may handle parody and transformation in fair use.

Example: news clip commentary in political podcasts.  Political podcasts like “The Daily” from The New York Times often use brief clips to provide in-depth commentary on current events. For instance, they might use a clip from a politician’s speech to add a critical or alternative perspective. In such contexts, courts are more likely to view the use as transformative, particularly if it builds on or challenges the original content. These scenarios illustrate the balance media creators must strike in using third-party audio. Whether adding commentary, satire, or criticism, the goal is to transform the original content meaningfully, beyond simple replication. Understanding fair use’s “purpose and character” factor helps media creators leverage third-party content responsibly, aligning with legal standards.

Media attorney, Matthew B. Harrison is VP/associate publisher, TALKERS; Senior Partner, Harrison Media Law; and executive producer, Goodphone Communications.  He is available for private consultation and media industry contract representation. He can be reached by phone at 724-484-3529 or email at matthew@harrisonmedialaw.com

 

By Holland Cooke
Consultant

Here’s a sales lead, based on an all-out on-air radio war underway in the Providence, RI market I hear when I’m home. These advertisers are doing well enough that they are also now using TV; and I am now hearing this category in other areas. Because two aggressive sponsors here are using these same copy points, verbatim, they must be working, so rip ‘em off:

“There are no fees, no showings, no clean-up or repairs needed. We buy junk houses, abandoned houses, condemned houses, foreclosure houses, and even land. We buy several houses a month, in any condition, and we want to buy more. We buy inherited houses, behind-in-payment houses, divorce houses, we even buy my-tenant-won’t-pay-the-rent houses. Call today for a cash offer on your house!”

Media analyst, broadcaster, and trade journal publisher Michael Harrison appeared on the popular Jeff Katz afternoon drive show on WRVA, Richmond yesterday (10/29) to discuss comments he made earlier in TALKERS about the historic significance of former President Donald Trump‘s recent three-hour guest spot on the “Joe Rogan Experience” podcast. To listen to the fascinating discussion, please click here.   

By Matthew B. Harrison
TALKERS, VP/Associate Publisher
Harrison Media Law, Senior Partner
Goodphone Communications, Executive Producer

The “Amount and Substantiality” factor in fair use assesses both the quantity and quality of copyrighted material used – how much is included and whether it contains the most significant, or “heart,” of the original work. Courts often find smaller, less central portions more defensible under fair use, but this varies by context. Using a memorable chorus or key line can weigh against fair use, even if only a small amount is used. For media creators, especially in radio and related forms of broadcasting, fair use is more likely to apply when portions are brief, non-central, and contribute transformative commentary or critique. This is the fourth installment of a multi-part TALKERS Legal Series on Fair Use for the Media Creator. The first installment is here. The second installment is here. The third installment is here.  To read this fourth installment, please click here.

Media attorney, Matthew B. Harrison is VP/associate publisher, TALKERS; Senior Partner, Harrison Media Law; and executive producer, Goodphone Communications.  He is available for private consultation and media industry contract representation. He can be reached by phone at 724-484-3529 or email at matthew@harrisonmedialaw.com

By Matthew B. Harrison
TALKERS, VP/Associate Publisher
Harrison Media Law, Senior Partner
Goodphone Communications, Executive Producer

With the growing popularity of talk media programs utilizing segments of other shows as key elements of scrutiny and commentary in their programming (“Clip Jockey Format” as coined by Michael Harrison), it is important that media content creators be aware of the subtle and often ambiguous rules applying to the legal aspects of this practice under the heading of fair use.

This is the fourth installment of a multi-part TALKERS Legal Series on Fair Use for the Media Creator. The first installment is here. The second installment is here. The third installment is here.

The “amount and substantiality” factor in fair use focuses on how much of the copyrighted material is used and whether that portion is essential to the original work. Despite seeming obvious, this factor can be nuanced, and determining how much use is fair can be challenging because it’s not just about the quantity but also about the significance of the portion used.

Is It Difficult to Distinguish?

In many cases, it’s not always obvious what qualifies as a “small” or “insignificant” portion. Courts often consider both the quantity, and the quality of the material used:

• Quantity: This factor asks if only a small part of the work has been used. Using a shorter clip from a video or a few sentences from a book could be more justifiable as fair use. But what qualifies as “small” can vary depending on the work—10 seconds from a short film may be seen differently from 10 seconds in a longer documentary.

• Quality: Even if a creator only uses a small part of the original work, using its “heart” or most memorable part might still count as substantial. For example, a few lines from a song’s chorus, though short, could be considered significant enough to impact fair use status.

Example Cases Highlighting Amount and Substantiality

To better understand this, it’s useful to look at cases that illustrate when the amount used was deemed fair or not:

• Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises (1985): This case involved a magazine that used a few hundred words from an unpublished memoir by President Gerald Ford. Although this was a small percentage of the memoir, the excerpt contained key insights into Ford’s decision to pardon Nixon. The court held that this use was not fair because it included the most “substantial” and critical part of the memoir, even though the total percentage of text used was minimal.

• Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. (1994): Here, the hip-hop group 2 Live Crew used portions of Roy Orbison’s song “Oh, Pretty Woman” to create a parody. Even though the song’s recognizable parts were used, the new work was transformative in its purpose (a parody rather than a love song). Because the group’s use was a small part relative to the song’s total content and had a new purpose, the court found it was fair use.

Many books and law school classes have been devoted to this question – so let’s focus on Application in Media and Broadcasting

In radio and broadcasting, this factor is often relevant when using clips, songs, or interview segments from other sources. Using a small clip to support commentary or criticism is more likely to be considered fair use, especially if it does not contain the “heart” of the original work:

• Commentary on a Speech: If a talk show uses a brief part of a public figure’s speech to critique it, the fair use factor may weigh in favor of the radio station if it doesn’t take the most memorable segment.

• Use of Music in Shows: Music clips used for thematic transitions or commentary must be kept brief, as lengthy or highly recognizable parts can affect fair use status. Playing just a few bars might qualify, but a chorus or instrumental hook would likely cross the line. This is less of a mine field in traditional broadcast radio as existing license agreements, such as with ASCAP or BMI, may allow for such uses anyway. However, when focusing on the internet – it’s a completely different matter as no licenses have been formally given, yet there is an incentive for the copyright holder to have their work shared. It’s not cut and dry – which is why the following takeaways should be helpful when navigating forward.

Key Takeaways for Media Creators

• Use Minimal Amounts: The less you use, the more defensible your case for fair use, especially if you avoid the most recognizable parts.

• Avoid the “Heart” of the Work: Select portions that serve your purpose without including critical or memorable parts of the original material.

• Transformative Purpose Matters: If the use adds new meaning or serves a different function (e.g., satire, critique), it’s more likely to be deemed fair, even if it includes some key elements.

Summary

Understanding how much of the work a media creator can use while staying within fair use guidelines can be tricky, as this factor requires balancing quantity and significance. Media creators should focus on minimal use that contributes meaningfully to commentary, criticism, or other transformative purposes.

Media attorney, Matthew B. Harrison is VP/associate publisher, TALKERS; Senior Partner, Harrison Media Law; and executive producer, Goodphone Communications.  He is available for private consultation and media industry contract representation. He can be reached by phone at 724-484-3529 or email at matthew@harrisonmedialaw.com

By Matthew B. Harrison
TALKERS, VP/Associate Publisher
Harrison Media Law, Senior Partner
Goodphone Communications, Executive Producer

This is the third installment of a multi-part TALKERS Legal Series on Fair Use for the Media Creator. The first installment is here. The second installment is here.

The “Nature of the Copyrighted Work” is a key factor in fair use analysis, with courts more likely to allow the use of factual works, such as news reports, than highly creative works like music or films. The landmark case Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co. established that mere facts, like telephone numbers, cannot be copyrighted unless presented with originality. In media, factual content like news clips may support a fair use defense, while creative works like syndicated talk shows are more protected. Broadcasters should add commentary or criticism when using factual material and be cautious when reusing creative content. Understanding this factual-creative spectrum is critical for media creators navigating copyright law.

In the context of fair use, courts are more likely to allow the use of factual works, such as news reports, historical accounts, or other informational content, than highly creative works like songs, movies, or artwork. The theory behind this is that factual works generally serve a public interest – society benefits from the free exchange of information and ideas, and we want “the system” to encourage this. On the other hand, creative works involve more personal expression, and copyright law is designed to protect that artistic effort (and allow for monetization thereof.)  This distinction plays a crucial role in determining fair use, as courts are more protective of creative works because they represent a higher degree of originality and personal investment.

Classic Case: Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co. (1991)

A landmark case that helps illustrate this factor is Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., which asked whether copyright protection could be applied to a seemingly factual work: a telephone directory. In this case, Rural Telephone Service Co., a public utility, created a telephone directory of its customers’ names, addresses, and phone numbers. Feist Publications, a company that produced a larger, regional telephone directory, copied some of these listings and was sued by Rural for copyright infringement.

Rural argued that its directory was protected by copyright, but Feist countered that the information in the directory (names, addresses, and phone numbers) was purely factual and, therefore, not eligible for copyright protection.

The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Feist, stating that facts are not protected by copyright because they are not original to the author. The Court held that Rural’s directory did not qualify for copyright protection because it lacked creativity and originality – it was simply a compilation of facts (names and numbers). The case established the principle that mere facts are ineligible for copyright protection, even if they are compiled in an organized way.

This case is significant because it underscores that factual information, like a telephone directory, cannot be copyrighted unless there is a creative element involved in its presentation, such as an original selection or arrangement of the facts.

Application to Radio and Media:

When it comes to radio, news, or media content, the nature of the copyrighted work often comes into play, especially in cases where factual content (such as news clips or interviews) is being reused. Courts may treat factual works more leniently in fair use cases, allowing them to be repurposed for commentary, criticism, or reporting, as they serve a public interest. However, creative works, like talk shows, are given more protection because they represent original artistic expression. The more creative the work, the less likely its unauthorized use will be considered fair use.

An Example – Associated Press v. Meltwater U.S. Holdings (2013)

While not specific to radio, this case highlights the issue of using factual content in media. Associated Press (AP) sued Meltwater, a news aggregation service, for copying parts of AP’s news articles and distributing them without permission.

The court found in favor of the Associated Press, stating that even though AP’s articles contained factual information, they were written with creativity and journalistic skill – thus, they were still copyrightable. The nature of the work was not purely factual, as it involved a degree of originality in the writing and presentation.  This case illustrates that while factual works may be more likely to fall under fair use, their specific presentation or creative treatment can still be protected.

Radio Case Example: Syndicated Content and Commentary

A case that touches on the nature of copyrighted works in radio can be seen in disputes over syndicated talk shows or political commentary. Stations that rebroadcast these shows without proper licensing agreements may argue fair use, but their success often depends on whether the work being used is factual or creative. For example, if a station replays a news clip or political speech, the fact that the content is factual might support a fair use defense. However, if they replay a syndicated talk show where a host offers personal opinions or creative commentary, it would be considered a more creative work, requiring higher protection. In some cases, radio stations have argued that the rebroadcasting of certain content (like portions of interviews or speeches) qualifies as fair use because it’s factual and in the public interest. Still, if the content also involves a unique editorial style or commentary, the courts may treat it as more creative and therefore not subject to fair use.

Practical takeaways for media creators:

• Factual vs. creative: When considering whether fair use applies, broadcasters should analyze whether the content they’re using is more factual or creative. Factual works (such as news reports) are more likely to be protected by fair use, while creative works (like music or dramas) are less likely.

• Add commentary or criticism: Even when using factual content, it’s crucial to add commentary, analysis, or criticism to support a fair use defense. Simply republishing factual material without transformation can still lead to copyright infringement.

• Be mindful of syndicated content: Syndicated content, such as talk shows, often involves a mix of factual information and creative opinion. Replaying such content without proper licensing can lead to legal challenges, as courts may view this as a use of creative work.

The nature of the copyrighted work plays a crucial role in fair use analysis. While factual works are more likely to be used under fair use, creative works enjoy stronger protection. Media creators, including broadcasters and radio stations, need to be aware of this distinction and ensure that their use of copyrighted material is both transformative and legally defensible. By understanding the factual-creative spectrum, media creators can better navigate the complexities of copyright law.

Media attorney, Matthew B. Harrison is VP/associate publisher, TALKERS; Senior Partner, Harrison Media Law; and executive producer, Goodphone Communications.  He is available for private consultation and media industry contract representation. He can be reached by phone at 724-484-3529 or email at matthew@harrisonmedialaw.com

TALKERS publisher Michael Harrison addressed a packed house of New Jersey political, civic, and business leaders at last Friday’s Hurley in the Morning Foundation Charity Dinner in Atlantic City (10/4) discussing the biological and sociological impact of modern era communications technology. In this clip, he discusses the potential influence of AI on the talk show host job market. One of the many highlights of Harrison’s 48-minute keynote address was his observation that it is very possible for robots powered by artificial intelligence to be able to hold multi-faceted on-air conversations with each other or with guests or callers by tapping into their ability to instantaneously access every talking point already out there in cyberspace – left, right, or center – and to present them with an endless array of voices and attitudes. To protect their jobs and future against this formidable competitor, Harrison advises talk show hosts to significantly “up their game” and operate with more originality outside the realm of hackneyed talking points.  To see a brief clip of Harrison’s comments please click here.

By Walter Sabo
A.K.A. Walter Sterling, Host
Sterling Every Damn Night, WPHT, Philadelphia
Sterling On Sunday, TMN

Like you, my guideposts come from innovators, leaders in our business. These are the words I “work” by every day that have led to consultant and host success.

“We will just have to improve security of the building. Next time you are going to stir people up, let me know so I can tell the sales department to raise the rates.” –  Bob McAllan CEO Press Broadcasting, original owners of New Jersey 101.5.

“It’s a simple business, people make it hard. In any situation there are three options: Yes, No, Do Nothing. Do nothing is usually the best option.”  – Edward F McLaughlin president ABC Radio Networks, founder of Rush Limbaugh syndication.

“Local news is the most important thing a radio station does. It must be accurate, and it is our business.” – Nick Dirienzo,  New Jersey Radio Hall of Fame inductee; owner WCRV Radio, Washington Borough, NJ.

When asked why he never discusses current events on his # 1 nightly WOR show, Jean Shepherd said, “Because that’s too easy.”

While others found trouble with every single new idea, Al Brady Law, program director always said, “It just might work.”

“There is no reason a station can’t own the ‘news’ image and the ‘cool music’ image.” – George Gilbert, PD WARM, Scranton – who pulled that off.

Being offered a significant marketing budget, Donnie Simpson PD of WKYS, Washington replied, “No thank you… if we put out one wrong image or message, we could ruin our relationship with the listener”  Mr. Simpson earned # 1 in DC with an Arbitron 10.0 share.

About Spotify and Pandora: “There has always been a box of records next to the radio.” – Bob Pittman, CEO, iHeartMedia.

“If they’re not fearless and having fun, they are useless.” On high powered, talented DJs. – Ruth Meyer, Radio Hall of Fame inductee and PD of New York’s top 40 WMCA, WNEW, and WHN.

“For WABC, as a top 40, 7:00 pm to midnight was their morning drive.” – Steve Goldstein, CEO Amplifi Media.

“Imagine if TV started on a cable distribution system. Then one day, it became possible to distribute without wires… over the air! That would have been considered a spectacular advancement!” – Michael Harrison who gives us daily permission to think different!

“No, please we don’t need to hear that story. We hear your show all day in the house. Save it for your show.” – Any one of the four women who have to live with me.

Your turn.

Consultant Walter Sabo A.K.A. Walter M Sterling has a nightly show “Sterling Every Damn Night” heard on WPHT, Philadelphia 9:00 pm – 12:00 midnight. His syndicated show, “Sterling On Sunday,” from Talk Media Network, airs Sundays 10:00 pm – 1:00 am ET, and is now in its 10th year of success. He can be reached by email at waltermsterling@gmail.com or Sabowalter@gmail.com.